American Indians Two Spirits

The role of the American Indians (Native Americans) in the United States cannot be underestimated. In fact, this people are the part of a cultural legacy of the United States. Due to the multiple tribes inhabiting America from East to West Americans loaned many of the common names and other terms going directly from the language of Native Americans. It concerns everything about the names of multiple states, towns, cities, etc. However, this research has its aim to disclose the nature of Native Americans in terms of gender roles and gender issues scoped out for today.In such an analysis one should pay special attention to some similarities or differences (natch! ) about two-spirit people among Native Americans. Moreover, it is not for nothing that the cultural as well as mythological approaches are taken to help an observer get the right idea of specificities going around these unique people, namely American Indians.First of all, it is possible to suggest that Indians living in the No rth America and throughout the United States, in particular, keep their culture in safety from the ominous (as they say) impacts of the Western culture.Hence, some similar terms and states of people have another coloring among Natives than it is among Westerners. Thus, one of the aspects in the research paper covers the cultural aspects of these spiritually well-treated people. Next, the question will be about the concept of two-spirit people (two-spirits) coming out to be among Native Americans. Finally, the discussion will touch upon some justifications of suchlike characterization of Native Americans. This will presuppose using features of compare/contrast analysis.As a finishing stroke, an observer should be ready to perceive the reality of two-spirit people, as it falls into traditional concept of gender, sex, sexuality, and spirituality among Native Americans (Jacobs, Thomas, & Lang, 1997).Nonetheless, the play is worth candles, as they say. Thus, the value of the research is in its sociological as well as anthropological investigation of tribal life of Native Americans and some peculiarities of berdache people (meaning two-spirits). Evaluation First of all, it is necessary to draw one’s attention to the mythology of Native Americans.They are quite spiritual in their beliefs and in traditions as well. Everything about their beliefs in divinity starts from glorifying spirits incorporated in well-known elements of nature or natural features (Leeming & Page, 2000).Woodlands and Plains are the most appreciated by Natives, as the place for the basic spiritual powers (Manitou and wakan) which are personified in these widespread areas inhabited by American Indians (Leeming & Page, 2000). Hence, the cultural background of Native Americans starts with the mythology and faith they share for centuries.Such a multifaceted reality encounters some critical points while Western civilizations are trying to critique beliefs of Natives, as primitive and no longer p ossible in a fast-growing world. Nevertheless, mythology is inseparable out of what Natives secure about their own attitudes toward some social events or people being different than the rest of the tribal community. This characterization is for a reason, since gender roles and the concept of sexuality are thought of in a different way by American Indians.It is a matter of their identity and dignity. Owing to keeping their culture(s) in safety, Native Americans secure social equilibrium on the spot. Thus, it is worth mentioning that features of any kind are open for discussion in a tribe.Some of them being a taboo for Western people are beyond reproach among Natives. In fact, the question is about Native American berdaches, as the two-spirit people. As it was mentioned before, American Indians kept their precious beliefs out of Western implications.As a matter of fact, Indians are likely to omit the notion of â€Å"berdache† by changing it to another concept of â€Å"two-spir it† (Jacobs, Thomas, & Lang, 1997). This is because the term itself originates from the nineteenth century when it defined â€Å"slaveboys,† â€Å"catamites,† or â€Å"inverts.†Hence, Natives, as a freewill community of people in the United States, prove their identity through the notions of spirituality and belonging to a tribe. This is the most valued features associated with these people. American Indians are non-violent by nature. It is well reported in the legends going along with tribes throughout the continent.Before getting the idea of the Great Spirit, two people were proposed to choose the weapon: the first one chose a gun and became a white man while the second one chose a bow and an arrow and became an Indian (Leeming & Page, 2000).In this mythic inscription American Indians tried to illuminate that spirits saved them from â€Å"extinction,† so to speak, by letting to choose afterwards. Otherwise, they would become as a Whiteman, cruel a nd apt at violence. This is the gist of why American Indians are likely to ignore what the Western civilization has proposed them.It is so even in social relationships, of course. Indians are not willing to use the same terms as whites use. They are scrupulous at finding a better explanation of peoples’ lives. Notwithstanding some unique states of peoples’ souls and spirits in a tribe, Indians follow the prescriptions of their predecessors in judging all of their identity. It is about time to give some new implications on the term of two-spirit people. In fact, these are those being of one gender physically, but feeling strongly the presence of another gender at the same time.This simple definition provides a scope of reasoning over the nature of indigenous people in the United States. Gender was always viewed by Native Americans as having a spiritual background. The physical sphere for the spirit is a secondary thing to interpret Indians’ justification of why t hey think of gender relationships differently. By contrast, indigenous people of America use their own characterization of gender. Brown (1997) identifies six basic gender styles among Native Americans, i. e. men and women, not-men and not-women, gays and lesbians.This characterization gives substantial grounds to suppose American Indians more varied and free-to-judge about gender analysis and its significance. Western culture views these particularities senseless reducing them to four or even two elements. It is due to the influence of morale and historical background outlining bigotries as of berdaches. It is important that American Indians view a man and a woman as two beginnings or halves to give further life to a tribe. These incorporations are done to prescribe a divine nature of gender in its spiritual patterning.All in all, indigenous people are apt at coming up with the alternative gender style in their society. Despite Western people, Indians, therefore, reduce an extent o f tribal conflicts due to a right understanding of different genders in people. For instance, in Santee Dakota and Lakota tribes, gender styles are in most points associated with particular cultural norms as for berdaches and fetishism as a term which unnecessarily linked to two-spirit people (Brown, 1997). These particularities gave American Indians more freedom to choose their social niche within a tribal society.Nevertheless, one should see a sociological prerequisite for diminishing a degree of controversial, frequently conflict, situations. Native American gays and lesbians is another aspect of the discussion. These people feel no prejudice or blame because of their gender style. In fact, two-spirit people are concerned with some magical power being with them, as healers or even as associates to witchcraft (Jacobs, Thomas, & Lang, 1997). In this respect American Indian people do not feel like hating two-spirit people. One should notice a distinct use of the word â€Å"spirit.à ¢â‚¬ This is where a respectful attitude toward Native American berdaches starts. What is more, it is largely considered that indigenous people in the United States are unique for their own views on life and manners of social existence.This goes along with the anthropological features of two-gendered spirits of some people living in a tribe. As a matter of fact, in the contemporary discourse gays and lesbians among Native Americans are really different from those of other ethnical belongings (Western people, in particular) (Brown, 1997).Century-long history of American Indians and their unbreakable strong traditions in fulfilling their destinies does not give them a chance to drop a hint of doubt concerning their spirituality. It is remarkable that two-spirit people are also endured with force.This one is appreciated among tribal society to bear a healing power and a so-called ‘mascot’ for the rest of the society. Thus, these people are largely considered to be involve d into spiritual connections with the Great Spirit as well as with Manitou and wakan.Once again, it is significant to admit that the main difference of shaping gender identities between Native Americans and Western people is in their cultures. Culture is a multilevel system bearing the identity of a community or even society of individuals.The anthropological issue is that cultural belonging exemplifies itself in gender attitudes (Wood, 2008). As was mentioned before, two-spirit people are a particular calque for gays and lesbians in the rest of the world. However, this notion is incomplete, as it bears no connection to how American Indians treat it.Thereupon, one should be careful and accurate in explaining the fact that two-spirit people are not similar to gays and lesbians in a simple conception. Two-spirit people are admired among Native Americans (Wood, 2008).Intersexuality means something special for American Indians. It is an aspect of a sacred features in a man incorporated with spirits being of different genders. Therefore, people should not treat it wrong that two-spirit people of Native Americans have nothing to do with something else but gay or lesbian attitudes and way of life.The features of acceptance and belonging for two-spirit people today are critical, as there is a collision of two cultural backgrounds, namely Native American and traditional gay cultures (Gilley, 2006).Two-spirit American Indians are so by their initial realization of their place among people and in terms of spiritual features corresponding to their Indian identity. It is hard to talk on this topic due to the increase of current gay culture dampening genuinely sacred understanding of two-spirit implementation among Indians.Recent studies on being a two-spirit individual within Native American communities show that it is impossible for indigenous people to impose surgery for making the prevailing feeling as of gender physically apparent (Gilley, 2006).This is a silly thing f or those who knew about two-spirit people long before the scientific and technological progress and the development of medicine and plastic surgery. It is a state of spirit, a state of soul, thus, a state of mind for Native Americans.Nonetheless, it is not a big secret that in contemporary tribal rites and priorities two-spirit people encounter some problems with the overall acceptance and further belonging to American Indian society (Wood, 2008). Historically, the cultural tradition of two-spirit people among different tribes has its specific definitions. Lev (2004) provides a set of different notions for two-spirit people in different tribes: â€Å"winkte (Lakota), nadleehi (Navaho), bote (Crow), lhamana (Zuni), and haxu’xan (Arapaho) for males, and hwame (Mojave) for females† (59).Dual-gender states are explained differently but all of them derived from the precious for Indians cultural framework and strong connection to their indigenous beliefs in spirituality of a ny individual within Native American society. The hegemonic Western culture is a great impediment for two-spirit people among Native Americans. The question is that these people cannot but be nearby the trends and features of traditional gay and lesbian culture. Thus, dualism of genders seems to be on the edge of having no genuine spiritual coloring for Indians.In this respect it is interesting that Native American berdaches are not traditionally concerned with homosexuality in terms of gender relationships, but just physically (Jacobs, Thomas, & Lang, 1997). This evaluation comes out to be a critical and quite contradicting as explained on the part of Native Americans. The idea is that everyone having an intercourse with two-spirit people is never considered to be a gay or a lesbian: If you are a man and you have sexual relationship with a ‘berdache,’ you’re not having sex with another man. You’re having sex with a ‘berdache.’And if youâ€⠄¢re a woman who has sex with a ‘berdache,’ you’re not having sex with a woman, you’re having sex with a ‘berdache. ’ So the partners of the ‘berdache’ technically are never homosexual because they’re not having sex with their same gender† (Jacobs, Thomas, & Lang, 1997, p. 104-105) This truth (apparently, an assumption) by Native Americans illuminates a sticking point for Western mentality and rationale of what being a gay or a lesbian means at large. Cultural prospects are above all for indigenous people in the North America.In fact, there is a feature of admiration in evidence. Many anthropologists refer Native Americans in their understanding of two-spirit people to some Asian cultures which have full-fledged settings of beliefs similar to duality of genders among American Indians. As might be considered, these implications are for a reason. They drop a light on the century-long communication within Indian peoples. In turn it was reflected on every feature of social life and further adaptation for living with â€Å"white† neighbors. This is why gender relationships are widely anticipated nowadays.To say more, American Indians are likely to personify deities in terms of their duality and reference to both genders. Two personifications of gender types from the spiritual point of view are eagle for a male part and coyote for a female part (Leeming & Page, 2000). Embodiment of two genders associated with nature and animals, particularly, brings a new understanding of homosexuality in. It has many things to do with neutrality and supremacy when individuals bear different feelings and preferences in life as for individuals of the same gender.It is almost impossible to speak about a two-spirit man or woman, as a bearer of some particular gender type. Here comes a dilemma in judging American Indians. They are never considered to be of the same values as pursuant to European people.Not-men and not-women are likely to be discovered out of men and women but as those having some magic power at their disposal (Brown, 1997). Among six gender styles, one should be attentive and quite rational not to mix not-men and not-women with gays and lesbians. This is why there is another incorporation of gender belonging as constituted by Native Americans.At a glance, it is hard to believe it, but it needs a proper look at how socialization takes place among American Indians. Hence, it is impossible to identify two-spirit people similar to current gays and lesbians.This would be a particular anthropological and sociological mistake. Different researches proved it to be right and full of rationality if only looking at the historical, cultural, and religious background of indigenous peoples living in America. Looking at what has been discussed previously, one can make up his/her mind about how to explain two-spirit people among Native Americans.It is apparent that the main difference betwee n two-spirits and gays with lesbians is in the spiritual and cultural background. It is a niche which provides a place for further dimensions in gender styles and gender treatment among American Indians. In the milieu of â€Å"Native American gender diversity† most of the scholars refer all two-spirits to bearing more male features than female ones (Gilley, 2006). This is why, since the colonial era until present it is documented that both not-men and not-women are basically characterized through features of masculinity.This assumption provides a scope of differences to consider two-spirit people not the same as traditionally understood homosexual minorities, as long as the European gay culture presupposes men to be like women in manners and other features and women to be more like women, as they can understand each other better than men could. This makes a constraint between two types of cultural and social ways of perceiving the reality. Westerners and Native Americans deli neate initially different beliefs which are inseparable from gender identities and attitudes toward them.The thing is that homosexuality among Westerners is in most points a reflection of Ancient Greek attitudes toward gender relationships. This idea got through different philosophical and social theories and explanations leading toward present identification of gay culture, as something transcendent and magnificent. Conversely, the evaluation of two-spirit homosexual identity among Native Americans begins on the moment when Indians came to the American continent long before the Europeans discovered it.Thus, it is rational to state two-spirit tradition of American Indians, as purely inscribed into the cultural background of these peoples. Hence, it has no Western or some other alloys of cultural intrusions, as Indians were isolated for many years continentally and by sea. This is why both cultures do not fit in what they mean for people belonging to them. A civilized life and seemin gly old-fashioned traits in traditions are like a medal with two different edges. Strict and quite elaborated norms in tribes of American Indians did not exclude homosexuality.This provides an assumption that transgender versatility should be taken into consideration in every culture in the world. As concerned with Native Americans, their predominantly genuine coloring in provision of the same sex relationships among some few people in a community are functionally defined. In this respect Lev (2004) identifies three core-features among two-spirit people within Native Americans, namely: â€Å"(1) a cross-role specialization in social, productive, and domestic roles; (2) spiritual sanction and associated powers; and (3) gender variation often denoted by cross dressing behavior† (60).This classification of the basic functions as of two-spirit people assumes implication of the key-features hierarchy. Just as they are listed above, these features should be understood by means of t he ascending scale.Two-spirit people, as described in the several tribes in the United States since the colonial time, were obliged to commit with both male and female social worlds (Gilley, 2006). It corresponds to the fact that social taboos were not possible for those who could not give birth to a child. Moreover, it becomes so until now.Two-spirit people are no longer appropriate to be claimed as having something of a man or of a woman. These people shared labor of both gender types inside Native Americans. This is why in Zuni, Cherokee, and other tribes two-spirit people were respectful for being good craftsmen or highly apt at social work within the tribal community.In fact, men could do weaving and potting alongside with hunting big game and building wigwams (Gilley, 2006). Two-spirit men were not separated from the male part of the community, but rather appreciated and adored. This constituted the same for two-spirit women.Notwithstanding, two-spirit people are widely said t o be another, third, type of gender relationships among Native Americans. This statement gives enough space to consider two-spirits economically and socially profitable for their communities.However, it is possible for those representatives of such gender type who position themselves as Jacks-of-all-trades. Nevertheless, experts are apt at characterizing the two-spirits as rather valuable individuals who are even believed to predict different events and to speak directly with spirits. This cannot but suppress ardency of the rest of a tribe.However, there were evidences when two-spirit people were widely suspected in witchcraft and bad will of spirits (Jacobs, Thomas, & Lang, 1997). Not for nothing, it was something like hatred to witches in a medieval Europe. Wood (2008) is inclined in her studies to state that two-spirit people of indigenous tribes of America are the result of the prior matrilineal system established among American Indians. In this respect everything, social, prope rty, or inherited things, were for women, not for men. Perhaps, this was a real pivot around which a symbiosis of two genders appeared and was applied to be another kind of gender relationships.To date, it is taken for granted that two-spirit people embody mostly cultural features and consequences in the evolution of Native Americans’ social life and development. Some experts still show perseverance in identifying two-spirit people through their spiritual estimation. However, the historical and ethno-sociological points of view give grounds to make sure Native American two-spirit people emerged as a result of some social privileges and appropriate changes in the social system and in stratification of individuals inhabiting a definite tribe.Different biases are concerned with some assumptions on the divine and culturally original personification of two-spirit people. This provides further discussion or debate, so to speak, in order to evaluate the social and cultural insights into the essence of what people call Native Americans.Contemporary talks on the theme of two-spirit people among indigenous tribes and peoples living in America including Inuit and Siberian Chukchi are all about transgendered people (being so few within communities) who are concerned women if they are two-spirit men and vice versa (Jacobs, Thomas, & Lang, 1997).This is in evidence until now, and no Western intruder can explain indigenous people the gist of such doing or, perhaps, its amoral side. Moreover, culture is a strong and quite dynamic unity of states and relationships between individuals of the same cultural terrain. This is why there is plenty to talk about social factors impacting cultural growth or decline. Now, it is vital to distinguish between the main dimensions to explain the nature of two-spirit people.It was aforementioned that this is a social and physical mixture of feelings inside an individual grounded on the cultural and the religious features. Lev (2004) giv es a holistic idea on how an observer should think of two-spirit people taking into consideration everything highlighted earlier, namely: â€Å"Though physically Two-Spirit people were not commonly known to be hermaphroditic or intersexed, they are considered to have the social characteristics of both men and women and – consistent with the Indian worldview – they are thought to possess the visions of both sexes† (60).This is, perhaps, the most appropriate in terms of the social discourse. The main obstacle as well as means to survive for two-spirit people is that they should adapt to two social systems with different settings of values and morale, i. e. American and American Indian (Brown, 1997). Getting through the diversity of likes and dislikes in both systems, these people managed to save their culture despite their gender inappropriateness with traditionally marked borders.This is the gist of what makes indigenous people living in the United States so scru pulous and up-and-coming in social or everyday activities. Another applicable feature of two-spirit people is that they do not separate themselves out of the society and their own communities (Jacobs, Thomas, & Lang, 1997). Traditional Western culture presupposes that gays and lesbians should gather together in special places during some thematic parties and on love parades, in particular.Western gays and lesbians are more likely to isolate their community out of the heterosexual majority. Obviously, some features corresponding to morale and political situation in a country have caused such behaviors. On the other side, isolation is a kind of pride suchlike people manifest to the rest of the society. By contrast, two-spirit people never neglect their direct participation in social services and things to be done at the moment. They feel their responsibility to be nearby the majority and help as they can.This is why two-spirit people are full-fledged individuals among the heterosexual peers. Conclusion/recommendations Based on the investigation and analysis done in this research paper, it is clear now that indigenous people have a set of peculiarities about those individuals who mate with the same sex partners. One should not mix it with the traditionally implemented notions of gays and lesbians. Two-spirit people are true members of their tribal communities and of the American Indian society on the whole.It is said that dual-gendered people among Native Americans are the representatives of the third gender which presupposes both male and female views incorporated with suchlike individuals. Historically, the anthropological analysis proves direct sociological links within which the formation or emergence of two-spirit people began. Even though, the study bears an analytical and descriptive evaluation of two-spirit people among Native Americans, it provides a framework for further recommendations.First of all, the study serves as a direct stimulus for would-be so ciologists and anthropologists. Thus, it is vital that practitioners in these fields take a look at the overall analysis of gender issues among indigenous peoples of America. It would be a great precursor for further deeper insights in the subject matter. However, the research would be incomplete if observers or young scholars found out more up-to-date sources on the problem itself and its place in social affairs maintained and developed throughout the American society.Hence, the overall representation of the research paper covers exhaustive information on two-spirit peoples among American Indians. Its value and its significance for sociology cannot be underestimated for further implications in the Native American studies at schools and in colleges.ReferenceBrown, L. B. (1997). Two spirit people: American Indian, lesbian women and gay men. New York, NY: Routledge.Gilley, B. J. (2006). Becoming two-spirit: gay identity and social acceptance in Indian country. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Jacobs, S. -E. , Thomas, W. , & Lang, S. (1997). Two-spirit people: Native American gender identity, sexuality, and spirituality. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.Leeming, D. A. , & Page, J. (2000). The Mythology of Native North America. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.Lev, A. I. (2004). Transgender emergence: therapeutic guidelines for working with gender-variant people and their families. New York, NY: Routledge.Wood, J. T. (2008). Gendered lives: communication, gender, and culture. Stanford, CT: Cengage Learning.

Management Info Systems Midterm

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Historical figure-prove with evidence that Jesus actually excited - Research Paper Example In the simplest terms, this is the case of Paul having the means to verify through James whether he had a brother Jesus or not. This is a natural means of verifying Jesus’ existence through relationships verification. This same process works in the case of for Paul directly knowing Peter, the disciple who is nearest to Jesus. If Jesus did not exist, then Peter would have told Paul so. This is common sense, given the public nature of Pauls work. Peter would have corrected him if Jesus did not exist. Also, Jesus being a life-defining figure for Paul, it would have been fantastic if he did not try to discuss Jesus with Peter and James. Peter and James would have corrected hm if Jesus did not exist. The personal relationships of Paul with James and Peter therefore stand as very solid pieces of evidence for the historical existence of Jesus. In turn, Pauls life accounts in the Bible can be taken as concrete evidence for the same (Ehrman, 2012). In Galatians 2, we have an account of the precise nature of that personal relationship and interaction between James the brother of Jesus and Paul, with Paul attesting to his being accepted by the disciples as a representative of the church to the Gentiles, in the same manner that Peter was the apostle for those who were part of the group of circumcised people. â€Å"James, Cephas and John, those esteemed as pillars, gave me and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship when they recognized the grace given to me (Galatians 2:9 New International Version). In Galatians 1, too, Paul narrates his personal close contact with Peter, who he calls Cephas, and his encounter with James. This was when he visited Jerusalem, and when he stayed there with Peter for fifteen days: â€Å"Then after three years, I went up to Jerusalem to get acquainted with Cephas and stayed with him fifteen days. I saw none of the other apostles—only James, the Lord’s brother† (Galatians 1:18-19). Evans (2012), on the other hand, focuses on the

VOLUNTEERING AT LOCAL AFRICAN COMMUNITY(Reflective portfolio ) Essay

VOLUNTEERING AT LOCAL AFRICAN COMMUNITY(Reflective portfolio ) - Essay Example To a great extent, I feel that I was ideally suited for this volunteering opportunity. Since my childhood, I had been a gregarious and community oriented person, who felt comfortable in groups comprising of individuals with diverse cultural and ethnic background. In fact I found such an environment really educative and stimulating. So, when I got a chance to work as an administrative assistant with the West Midlands Somali Association, I instinctively knew I had made the right decision. While serving with this organization, I expected to get a firsthand experience, as to how young people of Somali origin felt like being in the UK? What were the administrative, social, cultural and financial problems that aided or inhibited their integration into the essentially British mainstream? Besides, I was curious to know that whether it was pragmatic to categorize all the Black people as one monolithic group and assume that they faced the same problems, or whether their existed subgroups among st the African community in Birmingham , which faced problems that were specific to their culture, origin and community (Kyambi 2005)? The objective was to approach the given opportunity with an open and receptive mindset, so as to extend maximum assistance and to seek ample insight, knowledge and experience. Contribution Made to the Aims and Objectives of the Organization I really feel proud and glad to realize that during my time spent with the West Midlands Somali Association, I was able to make immense contribution to the aims and objective of the organization in the following ways: Office Paper Work One of the main objectives of the organization was to coordinate and collaborate with the local government bodies and charities to seek maximum assistance for the education, entertainment and integration of the local Somali youth (Rutter 2006). The job involved ample paper work as filling forms, filing reports, sending mails, etc. Besides, the young people who sought assistance from the attached organizations like Relief4Africa, British Yemini Project, SOVA Midlands Area Office, London Somali Youth Forum, or needed employment or housing were required to deal with ample paperwork, which they found immensely cumbersome because of their lack of proficiency in the English language (Save the Children 1994). At West Midlands Somali Association, my services proved to be of immense help in that context. I not only helped in the regular office paperwork, but also assisted and guided the young people with soliciting and filing the necessary forms and affidavits. Health As per my first hand experience, the Somali community in Birmingham faced many health related issues. The young people not only faced many diseases related to poor nutrition, but also psychological issues like anxiety disorders and depression (Ingram 2009). Besides, they also faced barriers to access to health facilities, not only owing to language problems, but also owing to a lack of trained volunteers and interpreters who could pass them on the exact and sometimes culturally sensitive information pertaining to their health problems. In that context, my language skills and knowledge turned out to be of immense help. In a way, I acted as a guide and interpreter, who served as a facilitator between the local health workers and authorities and the young people facing health

Key Change Management Issues related to Organizational Structure Essay

Key Change Management Issues related to Organizational Structure - Essay Example Large Builder plc is an organization that has performed consistently in the highly competitive construction sector in the United Kingdom even during the years of low economic growth.   It has survived and profited as a result of its ability to make quick and farsighted decisions related to investment, market positioning and cost-cutting. In order to take advantage of the upturn in the housing market, Large Builder plc has decided to acquire a small, regional housing developer, Small Firm Ltd. This acquisition is however expected to be performed with retaining most of the current employees of the Small Firm Ltd. and by using their existing market base. While this decision is expected to bring in an expansion in the revenue base, the merger and integration of Small Firm Ltd. with Large Builder plc would require considerations over and above the financial investments and legal deals that would go in the acquisition.   There are several important and distinct differences in the two o rganizations, owing to their different sizes and structures that need to be taken into account while ensuring that Small Firm Ltd. is able to perform the functions and adopt the business processes as envisioned by the Large Builder plc. Further, the two organizations have been managed in an entirely different cultural environment – Large Builder plc having a professional and corporate culture and Small Firm Ltd. practicing a small family-like culture. The above differences in structure and culture need to be understood at the onset as well as pre-empted with a strategy of integration to facilitate a smooth collaborative organizational environment post the proposed acquisition. The following sections will therefore contain a discussion on   the key change management issues that need to be taken into account when integrating Small Firm Ltd. into Large Builder plc.

Cost Control Methods of a Food Service Restaurant Research Paper

Cost Control Methods of a Food Service Restaurant - Research Paper Example When one enters the premises, one is likely to get impressed by its tropical outlook as well as the way the tables are arranged. The restaurant prides itself in the cocktails it serves as these come in large quantities and often cause visitors to try out the establishment in the first place. It also serves traditional dishes like the paella, which has shrimp, clams and mussels; the Cuban sandwich is also another star item on their menu. These food items have not garnered raving reviews from patrons as some feel that the drinks are watered-down and the sandwiches are highly defective (Doss 2). However, what is clear is that most of the clients value the convenience of the location as many of them are new to South Beach and would not wish to look around for other eateries. The Daily Meal classifies this business as the worst restaurant in America and several customers agree with the assessment as seen through their Yelp reviews. Most of the competitors are located along the same area; that is, Ocean Drive with Las Olas Cafà © being one of the more formidable players in the business. They also sell Cuban sandwiches like Colony Cafà © but make them in the proper way thus earning a steady stream of clients in the Miami Beach area. However, other restaurants in Ocean Drive have relatively poor customer reviews; Van Dyke’s Cafe and Dà ©jà   Vu restaurant are all within the same vicinity but are guilty of low-quality service as well. In fact, many reviewers claim that the entire Ocean Drive area is an amalgam of poorly-management restaurants. The area has lowered the bar for fine restaurant dining, and left many clients yearning for more; some believe that they have to visit neighboring Puerto Sagua to find decent food establishments. Colony Cafà © suffers from a serious publicity problem; being branded as America’s worst restaurant is the last thing a business owner wants. The most commonly identified issue among customers is exorbitant pricing;

Milk Plant Essay Example for Free

Milk Plant Essay Activities related to various milk reception take place in this milk reception dock. Obviously, this section should have adequate space for unloading of cans, sampling, grading, weighing, testing and storage of milk and cleaning of cans. Generally this RMRD is provided with interconnected chain conveyors to transfer the cans from the unloading point to the weigh balance and from the outlet of the can washer to the loading point. Other equipment that find a place in this RMRD include weigh balance, dump tank, can washer etc. Milk Processing Section It is located next to the RMRD section. This section shall be spacious enough to accommodate milk chiller, pasteurizer (usually HTST in large dairies), homogenizer, cream separator, milk storage tanks, Cleaning In Place tanks (CIP tanks) and reconstitution unit. Raw milk tanks are generally located at an elevated level Milk Filling Section Sachet filing machines are installed in this section. Standardized, pasteurized milk is stored in tanks located at higher level than the ground to facilitate gravity feeding. The filled up pouches are transferred by conveyor belt and stored in crates and in turn the crates are moved to the chilling chamber which is located next to the milk filling section. Immediately next to the milk filling section is the crate washer room which supplies cleaned crates to the filling section continuously. Milk Production Section This section is located adjacent to the milk processing section. The surplus fat obtained during the cream separation operation is processed as cream and this section includes cream storage tanks, butter churn, butter melting vat, ghee boilers, ghee storage tanks and ghee filling and packaging units. Deep freezer capable of bringing down the temperatures up to -30 °C is kept in this section for preserving the dairy products. Byproduct section This room is located next to the milk product section. The equipment and the utensils that find a place in this section include casein drying unit, casein vat, sour cream separator, butter churn for sour cream and facilities to handle curdled milk. Parlour Products Section In this section, equipment for the value added products like ice cream, peda, masala butter milk, shrikhand etc are provided. Milk Drying Section. In a bigger dairy, milk condensing and drying units are usually installed. This include milk condensing plant, condensed milk tanks, homogenizer, spray or drum drying equipment, nitrogen packaging chamber, and tins and carton packaging units. Quality Control Laboratory The quality control section is generally located near or at least easily accessible to the raw milk receiving dock. It has facilities to test the fluid incoming milk, milk products testing, packaging materials testing, bacteriological and mycological analysis and AGMARK grading sections. Naturally, this section accommodates all the equipment required for the quality control tests. Refrigeration and Boiler Sections Though considered auxiliary to the main dairy operations, the refrigeration and boiler sections nevertheless, do play a vital role in the processing of milk and dairy products. They can be housed in the main dairy building itself or located in a separate building adjacent to the main plant. The refrigeration section consists of ammonia compressors, receivers, chilled water tanks, etc. Condensers are usually located on the roof of the refrigeration section or outside the building. The boiler section includes the boilers, water softening units, water tanks for soft water storage and coal storage or furnace oil storage section. UTILITY Power used-11kv Transformer-750VA transformer(step down) By using it we step down voltage levels from 33kv to 11kv for distribution to substations where the 11kv is further stepped down to 415v. [pic] Low tension panel is used- Metering Panel Board- These Metering Panel Boards are made of16/2mm/ 2. 5 mm cold rolled, mild steel metal clad, free standing, totally enclosed, cubicle type, fully compartmentalized, outdoor / indoor installations and suitable for operation on 11kV, 3ph, 50Hz. , and AC earthed system. The panel contains the equipments and components complete with bus bar interconnections, control wiring, designation labels, caution notices, EB sealing and pad locking facilities wherever required. [pic] MV PANEL- The Switchboards are designed and developed keeping in mind future expansion of the Industry. All the enclosures are fabricated out of 16/14 SWG CRCA steel sheets and they are also powder coated [pic] DISTRIBUTION PANEL Distribution Panels or panel board is a type of component of electricity supply system that is used for the division of electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits. It provides a protective fuse or circuit breaker in a common enclosure. There is provision of a main switch, one or more residual [pic] STEAM- PRESSURE OF STEAM-14kg/cm2, 14 bar Types of Boilers There are many different types of boilers in the boiler room today in a variety of heating applications. There are two main categories of boilers among the different types of boilers and those two categories are steam and hot water boilers. Either of those categories can be fueled by oil, gas, or electric (although electric is uncommon for steam boilers). They have different designs and piping configurations as a steam boiler system is designed to turned the water into steam and uses gravity and pressure to deliver the heat and the hot water boiler systems are designed to simply make hot water to be circulated (by a circulator or pump) through a piping system to provide heat. Typically, hot water boilers are more efficient than steam boilers for a few reasons. First, there is less heat loss throughout the hot water piping and the shell of the boiler because the hot water boiler operates at a lower temperature than the steam boiler. This means there is less heat loss throughout the entire boiler and piping system. Secondly, because the hot water boiler operates at a lower temperature, it requires less fuel or energy to convert into heat. What kind of boiler do you have in your boiler room? [pic] Water Tube Boilers Water tube boilers have many different tubes inside of it that have water circulating through them. Hot combustion gases surround these tubes and an exchange of heat is realized from the combustion gases to the tubes and water. The water tube boilers can be built for higher capacities and pressures than the fire tube boilers because the steam and/or hot water is confined in the tubes. Water Tube Boiler sizes range from from 10 million BTU/h boilers all way up to 300 million BTU/h and these boilers are generally found in medium to large commercial/industrial use and can be either steam or hot water boiler in low to high pressure boiler applications. These boilers can be either oil boiler, coal boiler, or gas fired boiler and pass hot flue gases around tubes filled with water. Boiler combustion efficiencies depend on several factors for these boilers including: whether it is steam boiler or hot water boiler, combustion controls, flue dampers, frequency of tune-ups and/or air and/or water pre-heaters (boiler economizers). Fire Tube Boilers Fire tube boilers confine the combustion process and gases in tubes and water circulates around these tubes. Some fire tube boilers have turbulators inside of the tubes to cause turbulence of the flue gases. This increases the heat absorption into the water which makes the boiler more efficient. Fire Tube Boilers range in sizes from . 6 million BTU/h up to 50 million BTU/h boiler these use hot flue gases passing through tubes submerged in water generally found in medium to large boiler commercial/industrial use and can be either steam or hot water boilers in low to medium pressure applications. Again as with the water tube boiler combustion efficiencies depend on several factors as noted above. There are various names applied to different fire tube boilers such as: Scotch Marine, locomotive, firebox, and vertical or horizontal return tube. Condensing Boilers [pic] Condensing Hot Water Boiler Between steam and hot water and water tube and fire tube boilers there exists conventional atmospheric boilers and condensing boilers. The condensing boiler is far more efficient than the conventional atmospheric boiler. A condensing boiler typically has two heat exchangers and absorbs more heat from the flue gases. It actually absorbs so much heat from the gases that moisture in the flue gases condenses and needs a drain to drain off. This condensed liquid is highly corrosive and it is necessary for the manufacturer to build the condensing boiler out of special materials to prevent corrosion to the equipment. Typically, the flue is PVC pipe or stainless steel and is resistant to the corrosive effects of the condensation. Additionally, because so much heat is removed from the flue gases, the products of the combustion process need help to be safely vented. Usually a fan is used to either push or pull these gases out of a vent. Condensing boilers are typically rated at 90 plus efficiency ratings whereas the conventional atmospheric boilers are typically rated at around 80 percent plus. Conventional Atmospheric Boilers Conventional atmospheric boilers do not use a blower motor to remove the combustion byproduct gases. Instead they rely on the combustion gases to have enough heat to cause the gases to rise through the flue and channeled safely outside of the dwelling. If for some reason too much heat is removed from the flue gases condensation can occur inside the flue or chimney. This condensation can have corrosive effects to both the flue and the chimney and cause severe problems. It is important that a qualified HVAC technician inspect the boiler and that they check of the temperature of the flue gases. Using a combustion analyzer, a qualified technician can tune the boiler to make sure that the temperature of the flue gases is set to optimum levels so that the gases will properly vent and that the gases do not have too much heat in them. If the flue gases are too hot then you are losing efficiency up the flue. If the flue gases do not have enough heat in them then you can have condensation issues which cause corrosion. Have your boiler checked and inspected at least annually to maintain optimum efficiency. Electric Boiler One other type not mentioned above is the electric boiler. One could say that an electric hot water heater is an electric boiler although there are electric boilers that can heat water to steam temperatures. Boilers can use many types of fuels (oil, gas, coal, wood, and electric power) to heat water (or other liquids) but the main focus of Boiler Types article was to categorize the mechanical aspects and differences. [pic] Designing a process line In the dairy raw milk passes through several stages of treatment in various types of processing equipment before reaching the consumer in the form of a finished, refined product. Production usually takes place continuously in a closed process, where the main components are connected by a system of pipes. The type of treatment involved and the design of the process depend on the end product. The process described in this chapter is general milk pasteurisation. This process is the basic operation in market milk processing, and also constitutes an important pretreatment stage in a chain of dairy processes such as cheesemaking and cultured milk production. The aim is to present some of 190 Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 7 the considerations which the plant designer has to face when planning a whole milk pasteurisation plant. Process design considerations There are many aspects to be considered when a process line is designed. They can vary and be very complex, which places considerable demands on those responsible for the preliminary planning. Project engineering always involves a compromise between different requirements such as: †¢ Product-related – concerning the raw material, its treatment and the quality of the end product. †¢ Process-related – concerning plant capacity, selection of components and their compatibility, degree of process control, availability of heating and cooling media, cleaning of process equipment, etc. †¢ Economic – that the total cost of production to stipulated quality standards is as low as possible. †¢ Legal – legislation stipulating process parameters as well as choice of components and system solutions. Fig. 7. 1 Generalised block chart of the milk pasteurisation process. The process illustrated in figure 7. 1 deals with heat treatment – pasteurisation – of whole milk, e. g. market milk for sale to consumers. Some legal requirements In most countries where milk is processed into various products, certain requirements are laid down by law to protect consumers against infection by pathogenic micro-organisms. The wording and recommendations may vary, but the combination below covers the most commonly stated requirements: †¢ Heat treatment The milk must be heat treated in such a way that all pathogenic microorganisms are killed. A minimum temperature/holding time of 72 °C for 15 seconds Holding Tube Raw milk storage Heat Treatment intermediate storage Clarification process illustrated in figure 7. 1 deals with heat treatment – pasteurisation – of whole milk, e. g. market milk for sale to consumers Some legal requirements In most countries where milk is processed into various products, certain requirements are laid down by law to protect consumers against infection by pathogenic micro-organisms. The wording and recommendations may vary, but the combination below covers the most commonly stated requirements: †¢ Heat treatment The milk must be heat treated in such a way that all pathogenic microorganisms are killed. A minimum temperature/holding time of 72 °C for 15 seconds must be achieved. †¢ Recording The heating temperature must be automatically recorded and the transcript saved for a prescribed period of time. †¢ Clarification prior to heat treatment As milk often contains solid matter such as dirt particles, leucocytes (white blood corpuscles) and somatic cells (of udder tissue), it must be clarified. Since pasteurisation is less likely to be effective if bacteria are ensconced in lumps and particles in the milk, clarification must take place upstream of heating. Milk can be clarified in a filter or, more effectively, in a centrifugal clarifier. †¢ Preventing reinfection Heat exchangers are calculated so that a higher pressure should be maintained in the pasteurised milk flow compared to the unpasteurised milk and service media. If a leakage should occur in the heat exchanger, pasteurised milk must flow into the unpasteurised milk or cooling medium, and not in the opposite direction. In order to safeguard that a booster pump to create a pressure differential is often required and in certain countries it is mandatory. In the event of temperature drop in the pasteurised product due to a temporary shortage of heating medium, the plant must be provided with a flow diversion valve to divert the insufficiently heated milk back to the balance tank. Equipment required The following equipment is required for a remote controlled process: †¢ Silo tanks for storing the raw milk. †¢ Plate heat exchanger for heating and cooling, a holding tube and a hot water unit. †¢ Centrifugal clarifier (as only whole milk is to be treated, a centrifugal separator is not needed in this example). †¢ Intermediate storage tank for temporary storage of processed milk. †¢ Pipes and fittings for connecting main components and pneumatically operated vaves for controlling and distributing the product flow and cleaning fluids. †¢ Pumps for transportation of milk through the entire milk treatment plant. †¢ Control equipment for control of capacity, pasteurisation temperature and valve positions. †¢ Various service systems: – water supply – steam production. – refrigeration for coolant – compressed air for pneumatically operated units – electric power – drain and waste water. Most of the various service systems are described in chapter 6. 11. Service media requirements are calculated after the plant design is agreed upon. Thus the temperature programme for pasteurisation must be known, as well as the specifications for all other areas where heating and cooling are needed (cold storage, cleaning systems, etc. ), before the number and power of electrically operated machines, number of pneumatically operated units, working hours of the plant, etc.can be determined. Such calculations are not presented in this book. Choice of equipment Silo tanks The number and size of silo tanks are determined by the raw milk delivery schedules and volume of each delivery. In order to operate the plant continuously without stoppages due to lack of raw material, a 7-hour supply of [pic] raw milk must be available. Preferably the milk should have been stored for at least 1 – 2 hours before being processed, as natural degassing of the milk takes place during Legal requirements for: †¢ Heat treatment. †¢ Recording †¢ Clarification prior to heat treatment †¢ Preventing reinfection According to regulations set by the European Communities the heat treatment equipment must be approved or authorised by the competent authority and at least fitted with †¢ automatic temperature control †¢ recording thermometer †¢ automatic safety device preventing insufficient heating †¢ adequate safety system preventing the mixture of pasteurised or sterilised milk with incompletely heated milk and †¢ automatic recording device for the safety system referred to in the preceding intent. 192 Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 7 that period of time. Short periods of agitation are acceptable, but agitation is not really needed until about 5 – 10 minutes before start of emptying, to equalise the overall quality. This avoids interference with the natural degassing process. Plate heat exchanger The main aim of pasteurising milk is to destroy pathogenic micro-organisms. To achieve this, the milk is normally heated to not less than 72 °C for at least 15 seconds and then cooled rapidly. These parameters are stipulated by law in many countries. [pic] When the relevant parameters are known, the platage (dimensioning) of the plate heat exchanger can be calculated. In the present example, the parameters are: †¢ Plant capacity 20 000 l/h †¢ Temperature programme 4 °C – 72 °C – 4 °C †¢ Regenerative effect 94% †¢ Temperature of the heating medium 74 – 75 °C †¢ Temperature of the coolant +2 °C The demand for service media (steam, water and ice-water) is also calculated, as this substantially influences the choice of valves for steam regulation and ice-water feed. Connection plates between the sections of the plate heat exchanger are provided with inlets and outlets for product and service media. The inlet and outlet connections can be oriented either vertically or horizontally. The ends of the plate heat exchanger (frame and pressure plate) can likewise be fitted with inlets and outlets. Dimensioning data for the plate heat exchanger are given in chapter 6. 1. Hot water heating systems Hot water or saturated steam at atmospheric pressure can be used as the heating medium in pasteurisers. Hot steam, however, is not used because of the high differential temperature. The most commonly used heating medium is therefore hot water typically about 2 – 3 °C higher than the required temperature of the product. Steam is delivered from the dairy boiler at a pressure of 600 – 700 kPa (6 – 7 bar). This steam is used to heat water, which in turn heats the product to pasteurisation temperature. The water heater in figure 7. 2 is a closed system consisting of a specially designed, compact and simple cassette type of plate heat exchanger (3) equipped with a steam regulating valve (2) and a steam trap (4). The service water is circulated by the centrifugal pump (5) via the heater (3) and the heating section of the pasteuriser. The function of the expansion vessel (7) is to compensate for the increase in the volume of the water that takes place when it is heated. The system also includes pressure and temperature indicators as well as safety and ventilation valves (8). Temperature control A constant pasteurisation temperature is maintained by a temperature controller acting on the steam regulating valve (ref. 2 in figure 7. 2). Any tendency for the product temperature to drop is immediately detected by a sensor in the product line before the holding tube. The sensor then changes the signal to the controller, which opens the steam regulating valve to supply more steam to the water. This increases the temperature of the circulating water and stops the temperature drop in the product. Holding The length and size of the externally located holding tube are calculated according to the known holding time and hourly capacity of the plant and the pipe dimension, typically the same as for the pipes feeding the pasteurisation plant. Dimensioning data for the holding tube are given in chapter 6. 1. Typically the holding tube is covered by a stainless steel hood to preventing people from being burnt when touching and from radiation as well. Pasteurisation control It is essential to be certain that the milk has in fact been properly pasteurised before it leaves the plate heat exchanger. If the temperature drops below 72 °C, the unpasteurised milk must be kept apart from the already pasteurised product. To accomplish this, a temperature transmitter and flow diversion valve are fitted in the pipe downstream of the holding tube. The valve returns unpasteurised milk to the balance tank if the temperature transmitter detects that the milk passing it has not been sufficently heated. Pasteuriser cooling system As already noted, the product is cooled mainly by regenerative heat exchange. The maximum practical efficiency of regeneration is about 94 – 95%, which means that the lowest temperature obtained by regenerative cooling is about 8 – 9 °C. Chilling the milk to 4 °C for storage therefore requires a cooling medium with a temperature of about 2 °C. Ice water can only be used if the final temperature is above 3 – 4 °C. For lower temperatures it is necessary to use brine or alcohol solutions to avoid the risk of freezing cooling media. The coolant is circulated from the dairy refrigeration plant to the point of use as shown in figure 7. 4. The flow of coolant to the pasteuriser cooling section is controlled to maintain a constant product outlet temperature. This is done by a regulating circuit consisting of a temperature transmitter in the outgoing product line, a temperature controller in the control panel and a regulating valve in the coolant supply line. The position of the regulating valve is altered by the controller in response to signals from the transmitter. The signal from the transmitter is directly proportional to the temperature of the product leaving the pasteuriser. This signal is often connected to a temperature recorder in the control panel and recorded on a graph, together with the pasteurisation temperature and the position of the flow diversion valve. Booster pump to prevent reinfection Care must be taken to avoid any risk of contamination of the pasteurised product by unpasteurised product or cooling medium. If any leakage should occur in the pasteuriser, it must be in the direction from pasteurised product to unpasteurised product or cooling medium. This means that the pasteurised product must be under higher pressure[pic] than the medium on the other side of the heat exchanger plates. A booster pump, ref. 2 in figure 7. 3, is therefore installed in the product line, either after the holding section or before the heating section. The latter position minimises the operating temperature of the pump and prolongs its life. The pump increases the pressure and maintains a positive differential pressure on the pasteurised product side, throughout the regenerative and cooling sections of the pasteuriser. Installation of a booster pump is specified in the legal requirements for pasteurisation in some coun The complete pasteuriser A modern milk pasteuriser, complete with equipment for operation, supervision and control of the process, is assembled of matching components into a sophisticated process unit. Balance tank The float-controlled inlet valve regulates the flow of milk and maintains a constant level in the balance tank. If the supply of milk is interrupted, the level will begin to drop. As the pasteuriser must be full at all times during operation to prevent the product from burning on to the plates, the balance tank is often fitted with a low-level electrode which transmits a signal as soon as the level reaches the minimum point. This signal actuates the flow diversion valve, which returns the product to the balance tank. The milk is replaced by water and the pasteuriser shuts down when circulation has continued for a certain time. Feed pump The feed pump supplies the pasteuriser with milk from the balance tank, which provides a constant head. Tries . [pic] Flow controller The flow controller maintains the flow through the pasteuriser at the correct value. This guarantees stable temperature control and a constant length of the holding time for the required pasteurisation effect. Often the flow controller is located after the first regenerative section. Regenerative preheating The cold untreated milk is pumped through the first section in the pasteuriser, the preheating section. Here it is regeneratively heated with pasteurised milk, which is cooled at the same time. If the milk is to be treated at a temperature between the inlet and outlet temperatures of the regenerative section, for example clarification at 55 °C, the regenerative section is divided into two sections. The first section is dimensioned so that the milk leaves at the required temperature of 55 °C. After being clarified the milk returns to the pasteuriser, which completes the regenerative preheating in the second section. Pasteurisation Final heating to pasteurisation temperature with hot water, normally of a temperature 2 – 3 °C higher than the pasteurisation temperature (? t = 2 – 3 °C), takes place in the heating section. The hot milk continues to an external tubular holding cell. After the hold, the temperature of the milk is checked by a sensor in the line. It transmits a continuous signal to the temperature controller in the control panel. The same signal is also transmitted to a recording instrument which records the pasteurisation temperature. Flow diversion A sensor after the holding cell transmits a signal to the temperature monitor. As soon as this signal falls below a preset value, corresponding to a specified minimum temperature, the monitor switches the flow diversion valve to diversion flow. In many plants the position of the flow diversion valve is recorded together with the pasteurisation temperature. For the location of the flow diversion valve, various solutions are available to satisfy local regulations and recommendations. Below are three alternatives which are commonly utilised: 1 The flow diversion valve is situated just after the holding cell. Where a booster pump is installed, the valve is located before the pump. If the temperature drops under preset level the valve diverts the flow to the balance tank and the pump stops. The flow in the regenerative and cooling sections thus comes to a standstill (even when no booster pump is integrated). After a short while, without temperature increase, the heat exchanger is emptied, cleaned and sanitised. When satisfactory heating is possible the plant is restarted. 2 The flow diversion valve is located after the cooling section of the plant. Following a drop of temperature the flow is diverted to the balance tank and the plant is emptied of product, cleaned and sanitised. The plant is then ready for restart when the temperature conditions are acceptable again. 3 The flow diversion valve is located between the holding cell and the boster pump. If the temperature drops the valve diverts the flow. The booster pump is not stopped, but other valves around the heat exchanger will automatically be positioned so that the milk in the regenerative and cooling sections will be circulated to maintain the right pressure in the plant. This also preserves a proper temperature balance. When the heating conditions are acceptable the process can be resumed without intermediate cleaning. Cooling After the holding section the milk is returned to the regenerative section(s) for cooling. Here the pasteurised milk gives up its heat to the cold incoming milk. The outgoing pasteurised milk is then chilled with cold water, icewater, a glycol solution or some other refrigerant, depending on the required temperature. The temperature of the chilled milk is normally recorded together with the pasteurisation temperature and the position of the flow diversion valve. The graph consequently shows three curves. Centrifugal clarifier As the milk in the present example is not going to be separated into skimmilk and cream, a centrifugal clarifier is shown in figure 7. 6.

Death in the stranger and night Essay Example for Free

Death in the stranger and night Essay Before Meursault dies, he talks about his philosophy, and how he thinks the universe works. In this philosophical rant that he trails on, he says that nothing really matters in his life, or in anyones life. He begins to understand the actions of his mother towards the end of her life, and says that he understands the actions of the universe, and actually says the universe is like a brother. As if that blind rage had washed me clean, rid me of hope; for the first time, in that night alive with signs and stars, I opened myself to the gentle indifference of the world. Finding it so much like myself-so like a brother, really-I felt that I had been happy and that I was happy again. (122-123). Meursaults indifference to his own death once again represents Camus philosophy that death is simply an action that needs to be carried out at the end of life. This especially represents Camus philosophy since Meursault had been representing the philosophy of Camus in the pages beforehand, which means that Camus most likely holds this attitude towards death, which is what is being broadcast through this book. In Night, the most important death that occurs in the book, among the many that are referenced, is the death of Elies father. Both before and after his fathers death, Elie is extremely attached to his father, emotionally. He takes his relationship with his father so seriously that he says I had to stay at Buchenwald until April eleventh. I have nothing to say of my life during this period. It no longer mattered. After my fathers death, nothing could touch me any more. (107) This shows that Elie is extremely attached to his father, since his fathers death drives him to apathy towards his life. He takes the death of his father extremely seriously. The importance of his fathers life to him is shown through his continued attempts to keep him alive. In example, the head of Elies block tells him Here, there are no fathers, no brothers, no friends. Everyone lives and dies for himself alone. Instead of heeding the mans advice, Elie decides he will keep on trying to save his father by feeding him his rations of soup and bread. This shows that Elies view on death is a personal one. He views death as a loss to the living. He very much cares about the fate of the dead, and would very much have them stay alive than die. The representation of death in the two novels represents the attitude towards death held by the two cultures that the books represent. The Stranger, or Letranger, in the original French, represents French culture, since Albert Camus, who is really an Algerian, was greatly influenced by the French. Since Algeria was a French colony at the time that The Stranger written, French and Algerian culture in the sense of their philosophy on death is really the same. Night represents Eastern-European Jewish culture, seeing as Elie Wiesel, a Jew born and raised in Eastern Europe, wrote the novel and portrayed other Eastern-European Jews in it. Albert Camus novel The Stranger, and Elie Wiesels memoir Night both represented death in two very different ways. Albert Camus, through The Stranger portrayed death as a natural action that had to happen to every person at some time in his or her life, and should not be taken as seriously as it is. Elie Wiesel, through Night, argued that death should be taken seriously, as should the dying.

Outline of the clinical characteristics of depression

Outline of the clinical characteristics of depression The formal diagnosis of major depression requires five of the following symptoms and evidence of serious distress or failure to function in everyday life. The following symptoms must be present for most of the time over a minimum period of two weeks. Symptoms of depression Sad depressed mood and feeling or behaving sad and empty Loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities Difficulty in sleeping ( insomnia or hypersomnia ) Lethargic or agitated Appetite ( loss so weight loss or increased so weight gain ) Loss of energy or great fatigue Negative self concept feeling of worthlessness and guilt. Difficulty in concentrating ( slowed thinking or indecisiveness ) Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide. Give two or more psychological causes of depression Cognitive Views about the worldPsychologist Aaron Beck suggested depression is the result of negative thinking and catastrophising which he called cognitive errors. (Beck 1991) maintained there are three components to depression which he called the cognitive triad. The cognitive triad. Views about oneself Views about the future As the cognitive triad components interact they interfere with normal cognitive processing which then leads to impairments in perception, memory and problem solving, the person then becomes obsessed with negative thoughts. In addition to the cognitive triad beck believed that depression prone individuals develop a negative self schema which means they possess a set of beliefs and expectations about themselves that are negative and pessimistic, which leads on to feeling and symptoms of depression. Negative self schemas can be acquired in childhood as a result of a traumatic event such as the death of a parent or sibling, parental rejection, bulling at home or school for example. People with negative self schemas become prone to making logical errors in their thinking and they tend to focus selectively on certain aspects of a situation while ignoring equally relevant information this is called cognitive distortions. An example of a cognitive distortion is someone believing that someone is whispering about them and they automatically assume it must be bad, ignoring the fact they could be whispering something good. Cognitive distortions include the following Arbitrary interference: drawing conclusions on the basis of sufficient or irrelevant evidence for example thinking you are worthless because a show you were going too was cancelled. Selective abstraction : focusing on a single aspect of a situation and ignoring others for example you feel responsible for your netball team losing a game even though your just one player on the team. Over generalisation: making a sweeping conclusion on the basis of a single event. Failing an exam, this means you will fail all exams and that you are stupid. Magnification and minimisation: exaggerating or underplaying the significant of an event for example you scratch the paint work on your car and therefore see yourself as a terrible driver. Personalisation: This is attributing the negative feelings of others to yourself for example your friend enters the room looking upset; you believe you must have upset her. Beck also suggested that that there individual differences that determine the type of event that can trigger depression for example sociotrapic personalities base their self esteem on the approval of others where as an autonomous person would react badly to their independence being challenged. The cognitive theory is one of the most influential models that explain negative thought processes. It explains that our emotional reaction seems to come from how we interpret and predict the world around us. The main problem with the cognitive approach to depression is that the theory is correlational, and that the argument is a circular one. Does depression cause negative thinking, or does negative thinking cause depression? Also it is a theory which is hard to test and research people seeking help for depression already have negative emotions and so it is not possible to access their cognitive process prior to the onset of the disorder. Secondly when participants are tested in research they are often already on drugs to manage the depression which could affect the result of the study. Finally thoughts are subjective experiences that are hard to test and measure which make proving the theory extremely difficult. A positive of the cognitive approach to depression is that it has many useful applications and has contributed to our understanding of human phenomenon and it has integrated well with other approaches. The psychodynamic explanation of the causes of depression The psychodynamic approach to understanding depression focuses on how the unconscious motives drive our behaviours and experiences. Freud explanation of depression lies in the early relationships with are parents, he noted that there is a similarity between grieving for a loved one and the symptoms of depression. Freud described depression as an excessive and irrational grief which occurs as a reaction to a loss, this loss evokes feelings associated with real or imagined affection from the person on whom the person was most dependants as a child. Both actual and symbolic losses lead us to re experience parts of our childhood, thus people with depression become clingy, dependant and can even regress to a child like state. Evaluate psychodynamic therapy in the treatment of depression In support of the psychodynamic theory people with depression do show dependant like behaviours as they often feel that they cannot manage everyday activities and rely heavily on others. In support of Freud theory on depression and understanding depression from the psychodynamic approach is Harlows research on privation conducted on rhesus monkeys separated from their mothers at birth, using surrogate mothers, a wire mother and a cloth mother he demonstrated that a mothers love was essential for a persons mental health. The experiment showed that infant monkeys separated from their mothers displayed signs of depression. In support of the psychodynamic approach to depression and frauds theories this approach is idiographic and so focuses on the individual. This means that the individuals problems are taken into account and they are not just diagnosed on the bias of others. A negative point on the psychodynamic theory is there is little experimental evidence for Frauds theories as most of his work was based upon case studies, this makes the approach highly subjective and un-testable as his finding were often biased to fit his theories, second to this frauds theory is often characterised as unscientific as it is difficult to observe and measure concepts such as actual and symbolic losses and regression. Also the case studies used to test Freuds psychodynamic theory were mainly middle aged, upper class, Austrian women. This means that his findings cannot be generalised to the wider population. This is also a problem as he developed his ideas on childhood from adults talking retrospectively of their pasts which is a problem because people recall information differently and memory and feelings fade. The ethical implications of psychodynamic therapy Directive therapy- due to the unconscious cause of the psychological problems and the resistance patients put up to the unconscious truths, the patient must trust the therapists interpretation and instructions. However psychoanalysis does occur under voluntary conditions. Psychoanalysis can be quite anxiety provoking as it can reveal disturbing repressed experiences. It is a humane form of treatment as it does not blame or judge the patient, who is not responsible for their problems. Outline the clinical characteristics of schizophrenia There are positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia Positive symptoms are things additional to expected behaviour and include delusions, hallucinations, agitation and talkativeness. Negative symptoms which are things missing from expected behaviour, negative symptoms include a lack of motivation , social withdrawal , flattened affect, cognitive disturbances, poor personal hygiene and poor speech. Other characteristics of schizophrenia include- Auditory or visual hallucinations Flat emotions Delusions Disorganised speech Catatonic or disorganised behaviour Give two or more psychological explanations of schizophrenia Cognitive explanation for schizophrenia Cognitive explanations for schizophrenia acknowledge the role of biological factors such as genetic causes and a change of brain activity for the cause of initial sensory experiences of schizophrenia. However further features of the disorder appear as the individual attempts to understand them. The cognitive approach also suggests that schizophrenia is characterised by profound thought disturbance, this could be down to cognitive defects which can impair areas such as perception and memory. This could form cognitive biases and explain misconceptions and the way schizophrenia sufferers interpret there world. Schizophrenics normally first discover symptoms of voices and abnormal sensory experiences , this normally leads them to a friend or family member to confirm the experience when the experience is not confirmed this can lead to rejection of support. This leads to a belief that people around them are hiding the truth and the person with schizophrenia believes they are being manipula ted and persecuted. This shows the basis of schizophrenia is biology based however other symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions are formed after the failure to not except there reality these of which are cognitive. In support of the cognitive approach to schizophrenia Firth (1979) proposes that disruption to an attention filter mechanism could result in the thought disturbances of schizophrenia, as the sufferer is overloaded with sensory information. Studies on continuous performance and eye tracking tasks indicate schizophrenics do show more attentional problems than non schizophrenics. This means that perhaps reduced short term memory capacity could account for some schizophrenics cognitive distractibility. Hemsley (1993) suggested schizophrenics cannot distinguish between information that is already stored and new incoming information. As a result, schizophrenics are subject to sensory overload and do not know which aspect of a situation to attended to and which to ignore. One strength of the cognitive explanation when describing schizophrenia is that there is further support for this theory provided by Myer-Lindenberg ( 2002) they found a link between poor working memory ( which is typical of schizophrenics ) and reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex. Furthermore Schielke (2002) studied a patient who developed continuous auditory hallucinations as a consequence of an abscess in the dorsal pons. This suggests that there is wider academic credibility for the link between biological and cognitive factors causing schizophrenia. A second strength of the cognitive explanation of schizophrenia is that it takes on board the nurture approach to the development of schizophrenia. For example it suggests that schizophrenic behaviour is the cause of environmental factors such as cognitive factors. A weakness of the cognitive explanation is that there are problems with cause and effect. Cognitive approaches do not explain the causes of cognitive defects -where they come from in the first place. Is it the cognitive defects which cause schizophrenia behaviour or is it the schizophrenia that causes cognitive defects. A second weakness of the cognitive model is that it is reductionist the approach does not consider other factors such as genes. This suggests that the cognitive approach over simplifies the explanation of schizophrenia. The behavioural explanation of schizophrenia. The behavioural explanation suggests that schizophrenia is a consequence of faulty learning children who do not receive small amounts of reinforcement early in their lives will put larger attention into irrelevant environmental cues, for example: Taking attention to the sound of a word rather than its actual meaning. This behaviour will eventually appear weird or strange to others so will generally be avoided. Strange behaviours may be rewarded by attention and sympathy and so they are reinforced. This can continue until the behaviour becomes so strange that the person is then labelled as schizophrenic. Eventually the behaviour and psychological state deteriorates into a psychotic state. Evaluate cognitive behavioural therapies in the treatment of schizophrenia in terms of its strengths and weaknesses. The misinterpretation of events in the world is common in schizophrenia. Using cognitive therapy with schizophrenia requires the psychologist to accept that the cognitive distortions and disorganized thinking of schizophrenia are produced, at least in part, by a biological problem that will not cease simply because the correct interpretation of reality is explained to the client. Cognitive therapy can only be successful if the psychologist accepts the clients perception of reality, and determines how to use this misperception to assist the client in correctly managing life problems.   The goal is to help the client use information from the world (other people, perceptions of events, etc.) to make adaptive coping decisions. The treatment goal, for the cognitive therapist, is not to cure schizophrenia, but to improve the clients ability to manage life problems, to function independently, and to be free of extreme distress and other psychological symptoms. Advantages It directly challenges the problem and attempts a cure of the under lying symptoms. It gives the person some control over their own illness. Research has shown cognitive behavioural therapy can be as effective as medication Due to its highly structured nature cognitive behavioural therapy can be provided in a number of formats such as soft ware and self help books. Disadvantages In order to benefit from cognitive behavioural therapy you need to ensure you give a considerable amount of commitment which people with schizophrenia can lack. It could be argued that because cognitive behavioural therapy only addresses current problems it does not address underlying causes of the condition. Discuss the ethics of cognitive behavioural therapy Directive therapy due to the environmental determinism of behavioural problems, patients need to be re programmed with adaptive behaviour. Stressful can be painful and disturbing e.g. flooding and aversion therapy Humane specific maladaptive behaviours are targeted the whole person is not labelled. Outline the characteristics of anorexia Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for age and height. Intense fear of gaining weight Disturbance in the way in which ones body weight or shape is experienced, denial of the seriousness of the current low body weight. Absents of three consecutive periods. Socially withdrawn Refusal to eat despite hunger Give two or more psychological explanations of eating disorders Cognitive explanation of anorexia Cognitive psychologist has suggested that irrational attitudes and beliefs and distorted perception are involved in eating disorders. These beliefs normally concern unrealistic ideals or perception of body shape or irrational attitudes towards eating habits and dieting. For example: the disinhibition hypothesis once a diet has been broken one might as well break it completely by bingeing. Cognitive researchers have also proposed that suffers of anorexia are seeking to assert control over their life to an excessive idealistic extent. Bemis- Vitousek and Orimoto (1993) pointed out the kind of faulty cognitions that are typical in people with anorexia. For example: a common cognition is that dieting is a means of self control, but at the same time most people with anorexia are aware they are out of control because they cant stop dieting, even when it is threatening there life. These are faulty cognitions and maladaptive ways of thinking. The main problem with the cognitive explanation is that the theory is correlational and the argument is a circular one does negative thinking cause the eating disorder or does the eating disorder cause the negative thinking. Secondly the thoughts that are related to having an eating disorder are subjective experiences that are hard to test and measure, Also people seeking help for an eating disorder are already have negative emotions so it is not possible to test their cognitive processes prior to the onset of the disorder. Psychodynamic explanation of anorexia One view of the psychodynamic model of anorexia proposes that anorexia reflects an unconscious desire by a girl to stay pre-pubescent. Over dependence on parents may result in the adolescent fearing sexual maturity and independence. Bruch (1974) regarded anorectics as being in a struggle for control and their own identity, the pursuit of thinness was seen as a critical part of such a struggle. Bruch considered that there were two main characteristics of parents that made the development of anorexia more likely in their children. Firstly an over concern with food and secondly family relationships that did not assist the child in developing their own sense of identity particularly important was considered to be girls feeling that their needs were secondary to their mothers. The psychodynamic approach in relation to eating disorders is idiographic and so it focuses on the individual. This means the individuals problems are taken into account and they are not just diagnosed on the basis of others. There is little evidence for Freuds theories on eating disorders it is all based on feeling rather than hard evidence. All his case studies were a mainly middle aged, Austrian woman which means his findings cannot be generalised to the wider population. However Freuds idea that the anorexics refusal to eat was an unconscious denial of the adult role and they wished to remain a child. The timing of onset in anorexia and the loss of menstruation supports this idea. Evaluate behavioural therapy in the treatment of eating disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a common type of treatment for eating disorders. This branch of psychotherapy aims to help break large problems or situations into smaller more manageable parts and treats eating disorders in this same way. Cognitive behavioral therapy is a branch of psychotherapy that is based on the idea that all thoughts (cognition) and actions (behaviors) are related. This may not always be clear, so CBT aims to help individuals break down problems or situations into more manageable parts and examine the ways in which thoughts, emotions and actions were related in each other. Cognitive behavioral therapy allows individuals to examine the relationships between their thoughts, feelings and actions and in doing so allows individuals to understand that if they change the way that they think and feel, they will change the way that they act. For individuals suffering from eating disorders, understanding the relationships between thoughts, emotions and actions is highly important. Once these relationships are understood, the individual suffering from an eating disorder can replace the negative thoughts and emotions which have led to abnormal food and eating behaviors and with more positive thoughts and emotions that will lead back towards a healthy lifestyle. However, in order for these relationships to be clear, it may take several weeks of tracking tho ughts, feelings and food and eating behaviors before the individual will accept this proof. Often therapists will ask individuals to keep a journal or food diary in order to more accurately record their thoughts, feelings and actions towards food and eating during a given period of time. Discuss the ethics of behavioural therapy Behavioural therapy can induce a high level of anxiety which could be considered unethical Directive therapy due to the environmental determinism of behavioural problems; patients need to be re programmed with adaptive behaviour. Stressful can be painful and disturbing e.g. flooding and aversion therapy Humane specific maladaptive behaviours are targeted the whole person is not labelled.